Introduction to Traditional Medicine

From Islamica
Jump to navigation Jump to search

Introduction

Definition of Medicine

The science of medicine is the knowledge that determines the qualities of the human body and the factors affecting it. Its goal is to maintain one’s health during one’s healthy state and to restore it during illness.

Types of Medicine

Theoretical Medicine: Understanding the principles of medicine without considering the style and method of its application. Practical Medicine: Understand the principles and methods of this science for practical application. For example, in theoretical medicine we say that the person has a cold and a cold is a type of virus which enters the body and makes the person ill. Its symptoms are a runny nose, fever, sneezing etc. We do not discuss how to cure the cold in this aspect of the discussion. But in practical medicine, the discussion is how and by what methods can one treat a person with a cold. For example, should they get cupping done, steam their face, blow their nose, use nose-drops, keep themselves warm or cold and so on.[1]

A Healthy Body

A human is either healthy or ill or in a state between these two states. The responsibility of a doctor with respects to a health and ill human is clear, however a human who is in between these two states, it is often more difficult for both the patient and as well as the doctor. For example, a person with a large abdomen or a bald head, or uses glasses, may not know themselves that they are will. While in reality they indeed are ill, and they themselves are unaware, and in fact they require treatment, although they do not seem to use any medication for their ailment.

Subject Matter of Medicine

The scope of science in traditional medicine concerned the study of elements, temperaments, confusion, problems with organs, problems with multiple organs, souls, natural, animalistic and spiritual faculties, reactions, health and illnesses, median between health and disease, eating, drinking, climate, residential areas, housing, toilets, habits, physical and sensory movements, relaxation, aging, gender, the effect of external factors on the body, food and drink types, proper air inhalation, time management for activities and rest, methodologies of treatment with medication, and other physical therapies such as orthopedics and physiotherapy.[2]

Pillars or Four Elements of Nature[3]

According to traditional physicists: the elements are simple matter which are not divisible and form the primary parts of the human body or all other creation. They are four:

  1. Fire that has a warm and dry temperament.
  2. Air or wind which is warm and wet.
  3. Water which is cold and wet.
  4. Earth which is cold and dry. The two elements fire and air are light-weight, but the two elements of water and earth are heavy.

From a practical perspective, the four elements of nature are of great significance in medicine. When a patient visits a doctor, it was expected that the doctor be able to determine the patient’s nature and temperament. In the first step, the best thing for a doctor or a traditional physicist to do is to evaluate the four elements in a patient’s body, and to compare them with the different aspects and movements of a patient. This is to be done in order to determine whether someone has an influx in the element of earth (which results in hemorrhoids), or the element of water has had an influx (which results in thick phlegm), or the element of fire (which results in jaundice), or perhaps the element of air has seen an influx (which results in obesity). As a next step, after the elements have been correctly evaluated and their dominance and quantity has been determined, a doctor then determines the temperament of the patient and the subsequent nature it leads to. After having determined all these aspects, then the doctor begins to treat the patient.

The Elements in Relation to One Another[4]

Earth

It is a simple body of matter, with weight and a cool and dry temperament. Its natural location in normal circumstances is in the center of all other elements, and it is fixed and stationary. All other elements (like water, air and fire) circulate around it. The presence of the element of earth in the blood, or human body or other creations of the universe, are required for the continuity, stability and for the maintenance of their shapes. element in the blood or body of a human being or other organisms in the world for the continuity and stability of their form (shape). This element resembles the existence of bones which make up the skeleton of a body, where all other parts of the body are only up-lifted due to the bones in the body. If the skeleton is removed from the body, the body of the person will fall to the ground. The element of earth receives its coolness from the element of water which circulates around it.

Water

It is a simple body of matter, with heavy weight and a cool and wet temperament. Its natural location in normal circumstances is circulation around the element of earth, and hence it overpowers it. However, it itself is overpowered by the element of air. The role of the element of water is to soften the element of earth, and the role of the element of earth is to get the element of water its form, because water in its normal state does not have a form and shape of its on. It takes on the shape and form of anything it is placed in, because water does not allow earth or sand to split up, and the earth does not allow water to remain in a fluid state. The muscles in reality are hard like bones, but because of water around them which penetrates into muscle tissue, makes the muscles softer than bones. Essentially the work of water is to give softness to these tissues. Since the cartilages in the body are also soft, the penetration of water inside the tissues allows the cartilage to also remain soft in relation to the bones of the body. The element of water gets its moisture from the surrounding air.

Air

It is a simple body of matter, very light weight with a warm and wet temperament. Its natural location in normal circumstances is above water but below fire. The role of air in creation is to increase permeability, to soften, to lighten bodies of matter for easier lifting and placing of objects. For example, when you are baking a cake, you ensure that air reaches the inside and while it is crunchy and harder on the outside, its inside is spongy. If you bake the cake with more flour which represents the element of earth, it becomes very hard and difficult to bite. It is for this reason that Yazdi cakes are often spongy and hollow from the inside, because they are mixed with flour (as an element of earth) and air, which also brings the level of water down compared to other breads. Hence why Yazdi cakes are soft and crispy. As for the tissues of the body, the reader may know blood tissues often clot up. That is the best example of air inside the tissue, which is soft and hollow. Another example is the case of lungs or white liver. Air gets its warmth from the element of fire which surrounds it.

Fire

It is a simple body of matter and light weight. Its location is around air, or in other words, it is above all the other elements and its role in creation is that of cooking, softening, mixing, and increasing permeability in bodies. The best example showing the element of fire in the body is sperm which is made up of the body's instinctive heat. The blood gasses in the human body play a role in producing sperm by mixing bile with it. Another example is are breadcrumbs which are a combination of flour (as an element of the earth) and fire which makes it crunchy and crumbly. Another example showing the presence of elements in the tissues of the human body, is the presence of all four elements of earth, water, air and fire in the stool that exists inside the intestines. If the element of earth in the stool is higher, there will be stiffness and constipation, and if the element of water is greater, it will be soft and fluid, and if the element of air is greater, then though its mass will be greater, it is easier to pass it. If the element of fire is higher, it will cause mild constipation, but the only difference is that the stool will be darker in colour. If there is constipation in the bladder, the stool will be yellowish in colour. Black stool is thicker and denser, while yellowish stool is softer. So the element of earth represents constipation, meaning dryness, the element of water represents coldness, the element of fire represents heat and the element of air represents moisture. As such, every element in nature, has its own temperament and also acquires the rest of the temperaments from its neighboring element. Generally, water and earth, which are the heaviest elements of nature, contribute to the formation of body organs and their skeletal stability, while fire and air, which are lighter elements, play a role in the emergence and movement of fluids and organs. Note: The meaning of the element of earth, water, air and fire is different from what we know of them in day to day life. In fact, the earth, water, air and fire that we see are from the instances and effects of the elements of earth, water, air and fire. For example, soil or the earth itself is a combination of elements of earth, water, air and fire.

The stages of examination and medical observation in traditional medicine [5]

In the medical sciences, some diseases are sometimes diagnosed easily, and only through direct observation, such as certain skin disorders that are first and foremost determined during the very first clinical examination. However, in most situations this is not the case and a doctor will need to ask more questions about the disease. For example, if one gets hot flashes, a doctor will need to ask a number of questions to see whether they are related to blood or bile, or whether it has to do with the change in season, or a change in temperament, whether it is due to a woman reaching menopause, or if someone has eaten a lot of warm food, or they have mental depression etc. Therefore, overall, when encountering patients, the following steps need to be taken into account:

  1. Preliminary examination of the patient
  2. Getting an accurate record if there is no definitive diagnosis made in the previous step:
    1. Is the cause of the illness due to a disorder in the temperament of the patient?
    2. Is the cause of the illness due to the disorder in the condition of the four elements forming the body?
    3. Is the cause of the illness due to the way the elements are mixed with one another?
    4. Is the cause of the illness due to some physical or biochemical factors combining with one another?
    5. Is the cause of the illness due to a weakness in the spiritual state of the patient which is not being nourished?
    6. Is the cause of the illness due to the failings of the different faculties?
    7. Is the cause of the illness due to imbalance of fluids in the body?
    8. Is the cause of the illness due to imbalance of the various energies in the body?
    9. Is the cause of the illness due to the failings of the various gasses and blood circulation in the body?
    10. Is the cause of the illness due to the change in the temperament of certain parts of the body or the whole body of the patient?

Temperaments Linguistically the word temperament is a translation of the Arabic word Mazaj, which is a verbal noun. It means to be mixed. However, in traditional sciences it is a jargon which refers to one of the premises of the sciences. In this regard, temperament refers to the state acquired due to the combination of various parts of a body, such as the human body. In traditional medicine, many mental and physical characteristics of humans and even other creatures and phenomena are evaluated in the form of certain categories, namely, the warmth, coldness, wetness and dryness. Doctors of traditional medicine in Iran have described a comprehensive definition of human temperament and have introduced it as the moderate quality of action and reaction of the primary elements that compose the human body.[6] As an example, Avicenna in his book The Canon of Medicine defines temperament as follows: temperament is a quality that results from the action and reaction between the opposite aspects of the elements. This occurs when the opposite reactions result in a halt (meaning the opposite elements come to a state of harmony with one another). The existence of various qualities in the parts under the dominion of these elements is a result of how much contact the parts of one element have with the parts of another element. Whenever an element, with its energy continues to act and react alongside other elements (after transformation), the sum of that energy, a quality which resembles all those elements will be produced. This new quality is called temperament.[7] The primary components of any body, such as the human body, are composed of elements, known as the four elements: fire (warm and dry), air (warm and wet), water (cold and wet), and earth (cold and dry). Each of these elements causes the appearance of four qualities: warmth, coldness, dampness and dryness. The two warm and cold qualities that play a much more effective role in determining the properties of each body are known as "active" qualities, and the two wet and dry qualities that play a less effective role in the body are known as passive qualities. In turn, each element or composite body as an active quality can be warm, cold or moderate, and as a passive quality it can be wet, dry or moderate. The average quality of the composite body which is a result of the four qualities (warmth, coldness, wetness and dryness) is called temperament.[8] Temperament is a quality that results from the interaction of two or more aforementioned elements. In other words, the interaction of the smaller and conflicting parts together result in the quality of the homogeneity, which we refer to as temperament.[9][10][11] In traditional medicine, temperament is a key concept in defining human health and illness. In this view, just as the fingerprints of two individuals are not the same, the temperament of two human beings is not the same. As such, many diseases cause a person’s temperament to change which can then be distinguished based on a number of codified and categorized principles.[12] Temperamentology is also one of the most important issues in traditional Islamic medicine, which, by mastering it, can prevent a large number of bodily diseases and also prevent them from spreading. Temperament defines the existential capacity for humans and measures human fitness within this capacity. Then based on this capacity, it recommends the right decision for each stage of life; it offers a specific plan for childhood, youth, middle age and old age. It organizes the human nature with all material, spiritual, speech, audible, imaginative, visual, sexual and other behaviors and actions. Temperament is the true place of man in the structure of the universe of creation, and the approval of its movement with the creation of creation; and equilibrium is established when the movement of man is compatible with the universe. Temperamentology determines the true place of man in relation to the universe and outlines its movements in harmony with creation. Every time there is an equilibrium established between humans and the universe, they will be in a balanced state.[13] In traditional medicine, many health prescriptions and methods for diagnosis and treatment are based on the temperament of individuals. The temperament of each person is of a quality consisting of many of their physical and mental characteristics, and the sources of traditional medicine show how these characteristics can be determined and then be used to determine a person’s temperament.[14]

Humor[15]

Definition: Humor is a damp and fluid substance that originates in the digestive phase of one’s diet. One can find it inside the veins or out of the arteries and in the interstitial spaces or inside the lungs, and so on. All four types of humor, whether it is choleric or otherwise, despite being dry in its own temperament, are damp and fluid when mixed with blood.

Types of humor present in blood:

  1. Sanguine: It is the equivalent of red blood cells, many of which are found in the body of the muscle.
  2. Phlegmatic: It is the equivalent of a thick and flaky substance found in the blood or other parts of the body, much of which is loose and watery. Mucus (a substance that covers the surface of mucus membranes and has a slippery quality; this substance is usually secreted by the mucus membranes), prolactin (a hormone secreted from the anterior pituitary), progesterone (one of the female sex hormones), and triglyceride (a type of lipid that plays an important role in the human body. In fatty tissue, triglycerides play the role of insulating and saving energy) are all examples of sputum in your blood or body.
  3. Choleric: The equivalent of yellowish blood, a popular type being cholesterol, which is a type of choleric humor. An increase in it increases the blood lipids and hormones of the body and proliferates the fibrous tissue of the body. Bilirubin (one of the yellow burgundy pigments that results from the natural breakdown of hemoglobin and contributes to the yellow color of one’s urine and fecal brown color), cholesterol, testosterone (from the important hormones in the mammalian body, including humans - both sexes - that has androgenic – gender - and anabolic - constructive, growth effects), and estrogen (a group of female sex hormones), are all examples of choleric humor in your blood.
  4. Sediment: The equivalent of the deposition of blood or its mineral salts such as calcium, which makes the firm tissues of the body, like the bones, nails and hair. Usually, more so than other humors, the sediment in the blood results the metabolism or bile of our body.

A brief comparison between traditional medicine and modern medicine

  1. Traditional medicine has a history of several thousand years, some have mentioned up to 6,000 years ago, citing the findings of a city that burnt down. Modern or classical medicine has a history of 400 years.
  2. Therapeutic methods in traditional medicine have been tested through the course of time, but in classical medicine, treatments are constantly changing.
  3. Traditional medicine is universal, in other words, the whole body, and all parts of the body are considered interconnected. During treatment, the whole body as one healthy unity is taken into consideration. Modern medicine however is particular. If one part of the body becomes sick, all attempts are made to improve the condition of that part. One of the reasons for specializations in new medicine is this.
  4. The base foundation of drugs in traditional medicine is herbs, minerals, and natural substances, or a combination of them, but drugs in the modern medicine are mainly chemical.
  5. One of the main foundations of clinical examination, is the prescription of medicine in traditional medicine while taking one’s nature and temperament into consideration. In modern medicine, temperament and nature does not have significant role to play.
  6. In traditional medicine a variety of surgeries would take place, and modern medicine has made great stride sand advances in connecting tissues and other parts to the body.
  7. Traditional medicine is based on the approval of divine law and religion, as it exists in Islamic and Shi’i medicine works. These are based on the teachings of the Holy Quran, the prophetic traditions, and the teachings of the Imams (peace be upon them).
  8. In traditional medicine, prevention has a special place and treatment through medication is a last resort

Traditions related to prevention

  1. The Prophet of Islam (p) has said: As long as your body can tolerate pain, avoid taking medication and use it when it can no longer tolerate it.[16]
  2. Imam Ali (a) has said: Walk along with your illness as long as it walks along with you.[17]
  3. Imam Kazim (a) has said: There is no drug, except that it causes a new disease. For the body, nothing is more beneficial than avoiding excessive food, while eating only as much as you need.[18]
  4. Imam Kazim (a) has said in another tradition: Stay away from the treatment of the doctors until the illness resolves itself, because the work of the doctor is such that his little work will result in a lot more work.[19]

The conclusion derived from the various narrations is that (depending on the type of disease) you should look at your body before taking a drug, and to avoid taking medicine hastily. Doing so can cause illnesses that are rooted in the very medication. If a disease overpowers the body, then one should use various appropriate and prudent methods to heal the body, but still with complete caution.

Therapeutic methods in traditional medicine

Cupping

Cupping is one of the traditional therapies for restoring and reviving balance in the body. The history of using a variety of cupping methods can be traced back to a thousand years ago. Cupping can be considered as a regulating agent of the immune system. Islamic medicine and traditional medicine of Iran consider cupping as one of the pillars of treatment. All great physicians have used cupping as a treatment of certain diseases and prescribed it in abundance. Shaykh al-Ra’is Abu Ali Sina in his book The Canon of Medicine, Muhammad Zakariyyah al-Razi in his book al-Hawi, Akhwayni in his book Adab al-Muta’allimin and Sayyid Isma’il Jurjani in his book Dhakhirah Khawarizmshahi, have discussed the topic of cupping in details and when it should be prescribed. been discussed in detail about cupping and its prescribing cases. In the books of Islamic and traditional medicine, there are over 1,400 volumes of books that can be found, and almost in every single one of them the topic of cupping has been discussed.[20] By referring back to the authentic sources of Islam, we find that more than six hundred hadiths have been transmitted emphasizing cupping. Its benefits have been mentioned in the authentic Shi’i and Sunni books, in traditions from the Prophet and the Imams (peace be upon them). For this very reason, Islamic jurists consider the practice of cupping as something definitely a part of Islamic teachings and consider it part of Islamic decrees. This is to such an extent that some scholars considered cupping as a obligatory task that which can suffice by one individual performing it, while it was considered desirable for the rest.[21]

Two narrations as an example

  1. The Messenger of God has said: If there is healing in anything, then it is in the blade of the person doing cupping, or in honey syrup.[22]
  2. Jabir bin Abdullah reports that I heard the Messenger of God saying: If there is healing in anything, then it is in drinking honey, cupping, or cauterization. Although I do not like cauterization as a treatment.[23]

Cupping or Dry Cupping

There are two types of cupping, wet and dry. In dry cupping, after sucking out the air from the portion cupping is being done on a patient’s body, a few cuts are made with a surgical sterilizing blade. However, in dry cupping[24][25] a special suction cup is used the skin is stretched and sucked into the cup. There is no razor needed to make cuts on the skin.

Phlebotomy

The term “phlebotomy” means to make an incision. In Islamic medicine it is also a means of preventing certain diseases and an effective treatment for treating many diseases. It has long been used and accepted by most Muslim doctors. During the translation movement in the Abbasid period, Muslim scholars translated many books on the topic of phlebotomy into Arabic, and then later themselves wrote books on the same topic and published them. In the past, all people would resort of phlebotomy in case of need. Sultans and caliphs also had specific days on which they would go for this process.[26] Phlebotomy, which is also sometimes referred to as blood-letting, saingee, and venesection, is a hand procedure (a hand procedure in traditional medicine is any treatment whose preliminaries need to be carried out by the hands) where a split is made in the vein by a razor and the four types of humor are extracted from it.[27]

Vomit

Finding the right way to get rid of excess material from the body is called discharge. Vomit is a type of discharge of the body, through intentionally throwing up. [28][29] Vomiting is good in every season except in winter, but if one is specifically looking to discharge bile, summer is the best season, and around noon (at the time of Zuhr when the air temperature is very hot) is the best time to do so. Doing so will also rid the body of other elements from the stomach[30]

Diarrhea

In traditional Islamic and traditional medicine, various laxatives are prescribed for various diseases to prevent different types of humor. This method of cleansing also has a large section dedicate to it in traditional medicine. Imam Ridha (a) in his treatise, mentions that cupping, phlebotomy and laxatives in the first month of spring – which is the best time to detox your body – is recommended. He says: Spring is the soul of time, and its first month if Adhar (a Roman month). It is like for one to take laxatives, and perform phlebotomy and cupping in this season.[31]

Enema

Enema is another hand procedure which has been used against a wide range of diseases. Enema means to transfer fluid into the body through the intestine or vagina using special appliances. The use of this method dates back to several thousand years, to the times of Hippocrates and Galen. Today, enema is performed widely in India and China. Even in modern medicine, enema is used to diagnose and treat diseases.[32]

Snuff

Sneezing is one of the most effective therapeutic methods used in Islamic medicine. It is a traditional treatment for many diseases due to its ability to cleanse the head and body from humor. For this reason, in the past, some people had small cans of snuff in their pockets. They would sneeze repeatedly by smelling or putting some of it inside their nose. This snuff was obtained from the combination of some medicinal plants. Sneezing twice a week around 20 times after using snuff is very beneficial. Snuff or sneezing drugs are often made up of a mixture of white hellebore, coriander seeds, crushed and powered violets. When using, a very small amount of it is blown into the nose so that when it comes into contact with the moist surface inside the nose, causing severe irritation and sneezing. Sneezing is very important as a prevention and treatment technique. One of the benefits of sneezing is that it can be used to prevent strokes.

Massage

Massage is the process of squeezing and rubbing. Physicians of traditional medicine would consider it a type of exercise and believe that all qualities for exercise can be found in massage therapy. In some cases, it is even better than exercise itself, which itself has a lot of therapeutic properties.[33] Ibn Sina in his al-Qanun mentions massaging more than four-hundred times.

Bath and Hydrotherapy

Bathing is one of the most important and effective methods of prevention and treatment in Islamic and traditional medicine. In the past, bathing was a lengthy and complete process that would have healing effects. In traditional baths, therapeutic colours, herbal remedies, extractive remedies, silence therapy, and therapeutic reflection would take place, and people would get massage done and as well as use kohl. Hence, the building and architectures of these bath houses were unique, and each part was made taking health and therapy into consideration.

Bath houses in ancient times were more than just a place to take a bath. In addition to cleaning and washing, a large part of these bath houses were treating ailments through traditional methods. It was said that the first person to enter the bath and used applied quick lime was Prophet Sulayman the son of Dawood (peace be upon him).[34]

Leech Therapy

One of the therapeutic techniques used in traditional medicine is with leeches. This extraordinary creature is known as a small surgeon. Leeches have been used in medicine in India, Greece, Rome, Iran and then in Europe since 2,500 years ago.[35] So far, about 650 different types of leeches have been identified that came in different shapes. This animal feeds primarily on blood.[36]

Leeches have been considered important for therapy in ancient medicine. They have also been used a lot in modern medicine. One of the export items of the Soviet Union to western countries is leech, and they are exported solely for medical purposes.

Heat Therapy

Heating and slightly burning a given part of the body was one of the medical experiences and traditional practices of human societies when it came to medical treatment of diseases. The time and place it originated is unknown, but it has been used in almost all civilized human societies and has been passed on from one generation to the next.

This method of treatment, which is popular amongst Muslim physicians, can also be found in the traditions and as well as Muslim scholarly literature, both in Arabic and Persian. It could be found in various forms and had certain degrees and effects. Until newer medicines were created, it was used to cure many of the external and internal diseases of the human body.

In many medical books written by Muslims, a number of significant discussions regarding the necessity of using heat therapy for certain treatable diseases, the shape and kind of tools required, and how they are to be used have all been discussed.[37]



References

  1. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shanakht Tabayi’, v. 3, pg. 21
  2. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 3, pg. 22
  3. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 3, pg. 23
  4. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 3, pg. 24
  5. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 3, pg. 29
  6. ↑ Fasal Nameh Tarikh Pezeshki, pg. 42
  7. ↑ Al-Qanun fi al-Tib, v. 1, pg. 24
  8. ↑ Fasal Nameh Tarikh Pezeshki, pg. 43
  9. ↑ Tibb Sunnati Islami, pg. 32
  10. ↑ Da’irah al-Ma’arif Giyah Darmani Iran, pg. 1069
  11. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 2, pg. 22
  12. ↑ Majalleh-ye Tibb Sunnati Islam wa Iran, pg. 237
  13. ↑ Tibb Sunnati Islami, pg. 29
  14. ↑ Fasal Nameh Tarikh Pezeshki, pg. 37
  15. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 3, pg. 32
  16. ↑ Wasail al-Shi’a, v. 2, pg. 409
  17. ↑ Nahj al-Balagha, pg. 472
  18. ↑ Al-Kafi, v. 8, pg. 273
  19. ↑ Wasa’il al-Shi’a, v. 2, pg. 409
  20. ↑ Journal: Din wa Salamat, pg. 62
  21. ↑ Journal: Din wa Salamat, pg. 61
  22. ↑ Mustadrak al-Wasail, v. 16, pg. 368
  23. ↑ Sahih Bukhari, v. 7, pg. 125, #5702
  24. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 1, pg. 163
  25. ↑ Khulasah al-Hikmah, v. 2, pg. 1241
  26. ↑ Majalleh Tarikh wa Tamaddun Islami, pg. 31
  27. ↑ Majalleh Tibb Sunnati Islami wa Iran, pg. 140
  28. ↑ Dawreh Tibb Sunnati wa Taghziyeh Shinakht Tabayi, v. 2, pg. 151
  29. ↑ Al-Tibb al-Nabawi, pg. 96
  30. ↑ Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb, v. 1, pg. 260
  31. ↑ Mustadrak al-Wasail wa Mustanbit al-Masail, v. 16, pg. 455
  32. ↑ Faslnameh Tarikh Pezeshki, pg. 47
  33. ↑ Khulasah al-Hikmah, v. 2, pg. 862
  34. ↑ Al-Tibb al-Nabawi, pg. 304
  35. ↑ Majalleh Tibb Sunnati Islam wa Iran, pg. 41
  36. ↑ Khulasah al-Hikmah, v. 3, pg. 411
  37. ↑ Majalleh: Tarikh Islam wa Iran; Sheeway Darmani Dagh Kardan wa Jaygah wa Ahmiyyat An Dar Tarikh Pezeshki Musalmanan, pg. 37
Retrieved from "https://en.islamica.org/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Traditional_Medicine&oldid=665"